The papyrus palimpsest from Murabb t may be dated to the end of this period, while a jar inscription found at Azor, near Jaffa, reading llmy is in the Phoenician script. Ivory gifts were presented to the king as well. ), gives a detailed description of the manufacture of papyrus writing material: The raw material taken from the tall plants some as high as 35 feet consisted of strips cut lengthwise from the pith of the three-sided stalks. 20b). In Devarim / Deuteronomy 16:1 and several other occasions Nisan is called the Month of Avv. Jewish tradition equates the Torahs Seventh Month with the Hebrew month of Tishrei. Black ink was made from carbon in the form of soot mixed with a thin solution of gum. 176), a practice followed among some circles in writing the Tetragrammaton but which the rabbis specifically forbade (Sof. Kerker. The Written Law was final and decisive; its interpretation had to remain open to adjustment. [iv] The l.q.sh root () for to be late, occurring here in the Gezer inscription, is rare in Hebrew, but known with the same meaning from Aramaic/Syriac, and is familiar nonetheless for Hebrew-speakers as the basis of the word for late rains or the last rain, malqsh (). . erected one in the vicinity of Wadi el-Arish, the biblical Brook of Egypt. . The biblical city of Gath was where the Goliath inscription was found. There is still some degree of disagreement as to the deciphering of these brief inscriptions. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. However, such ostentation was later forbidden and tractate Soferim (1:9) states, "it is forbidden to write [a Sefer Torah ] in gold. 12:4; Sot. Non-permanent writing materials are given as leaves of leeks, onions, vegetables, and the sorb apple tree. This name appears in the Bible for several individuals, including a king of Judah (1 Kings 14:31). It may not have been recorded sufficiently in the written Torah itself, but the Jewish oral tradition fills in the gaps regarding the significance of the Day of (Shofar) Blasting. A similar trend may be noted in other Canaanite cities as well (Beth Shemesh, Taanach, Mount Tabor). Karaite Jews still use the wild barley growing in Israel to calibrate the lunar Hebrew calendar with the solar seasons ahead of the Pesah / Passover holiday in Nisan. The most permanent ink, however, was made by adding iron sulphate or vitriol (kankantum or kalkantum, properly , Gr. The ivory inlays found in the palace at Samaria are indicative of contemporary styles of decorative art favored by the Israelite aristocracy (Amos 3:15). IVORY, WOOD, WAX, GRAFFITI, TATTOO MARKS: M. San Nicol, in: Orientalia, 17 (1948), 5970; I. Mendelsohn, Slavery in the Ancient Near East (1949), 42ff. STONE: A.T. Olmstead, in: JAOS, 41 (1921), 372; D. Simons, Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topographical Lists Relating to Western Asia (1937); W.F. English: The Gezer Calendar tablet is one of the earliest Hebrew texts. Targ. There is also a reference to a prophet in these texts. It is also possible that the content of the inscription is a popular folk song, listing the months of the year according to the agricultural seasons. Later the pen case and palette were combined and easily carried on the belt (cf. Neh. The fifth-century Greek historians Herodotus and Ctesias noted that the barbarians continued to use leather for writing, while on the Greek mainland this substance had been replaced by papyrus. Many of the important inscriptions from the Phoenician coast such as the Eshmunazor, Bodashtart, and Tabnit funeral inscriptions, etc., as well as those from Umm al-Awmid, come from the Persian and Hellenistic periods. With the decline of Mesopotamian influence toward the end of the second millennium B.C.E., this writing surface became obsolete. Not only do we pay for our servers, but also for related services such as our content delivery network, Google Workspace, email, and much more. [vi] The term used by the Gezer Calendar for the grape harvest, zmr (), likely vocalized as zmr, is quite surprising. There are several types of yhd, yhwd, and yh stamps from this period with the yh stamps presumably the latest. Furthermore, suitable clay was not commonly found in this area, nor was it easily adaptable to the emerging linear alphabet. The hieroglyphic sign for Lower Egypt is the papyrus plant. In ancient Israel, this precious metal was employed in Temple ornaments and priestly vestments. 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[viii] As the barley harvest is described in the Tanakh as starting in mid-/late Nisan, and was inaugurated with the Waving of the Omer ceremony in the Jerusalem Temple in the second half of the month (precisely when is a subject of disagreement), it is not surprising that the following month, Iyar (April-May) is when the Gezer Calendar would place the bulk of barley harvesting. Harvest collection activities spilled over into the month of Heshvan most notably the olive harvest and Heshvan is referred to in the Tanakh as Yrah Bl ( ) the Moon of Bl, which Ernest Klein links with the more common term yevl (), meaning the yield of agricultural produce[iii]. Then, in 1908, when the Ottoman Empire still ruled the country, a small clay tablet was found at the archaeological excavations of Tel Gezer, an important biblical city in central Israel, bearing a Hebrew inscription from nearly three millennia ago, dated roughly to the 10th century BCE. The main feature which led Sir Alan Gardiner to discover the transition from hieroglyphs to the acrophonic system was the repetition of a four character word. It was to remain in use until replaced by true paper, brought from China between the seventh and tenth centuries C.E. This is the longest extant inscription in early Aramaic. Ctesias remarked that the Persians wrote their royal records on diphtherai, i.e., skins. Ginsberg, in: BASOR, 111 (1948), 2526; G.J. Millard, ibid., 24 (1962), 4551; J. Naveh, in: IEJ, 13 (1963), 7492; W.G. World History Encyclopedia. The donor may be the son of Nehemiah's enemy Geshem the Arab (Neh. 2:3; Isa. It is dedicated to Melqart, god of Tyre, and comes from the middle of the ninth century B.C.E. I just spoke with a vintner based near Beit Shemesh who was finishing up the vintage in late Av (late August this year), though in our day this is relatively early and grape harvesting can go on into October. The calendar is inscribed on a limestone plaque and describes monthly or bi-monthly periods and attributes to each a duty such as harvest, planting, or tending specific crops. Macalister of the Palestine Exploration Fund while excavating the ancient Canaanite city of Gezer, 20 miles west of Jerusalem. ), while the oldest extant example of such a writing surface dates from the 12th Dynasty (20001800 B.C.E.). This writing surface was chosen specifically to record a list of fabled treasures. A royal city on the inland side of the Palestinian coastal plain. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world. 4:3; I Sam. Another, larger group, the so-called Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions (1500 B.C.E.) 23:3). Then follow two months of grain sowing (KislevTevet), two months concerned with the late sowing (ShevatAdar), one month of flax harvest (by uprooting with a mattock; Nisan), one month of barley harvest (Iyyar), a month of wheat harvest (Sivan), two months of vine pruning or of vintage (TammuzAv), and, at the end, the month of qayi, i.e., the picking or drying of figs (Elul). There is additional evidence that the wordplay in the Northern dialect would likely have not been lost on the Gezer Calendar poet, and may have been intentional: Ahituv notes that in the prophet Amos 8th c. BCE vision of the impending destruction of the Northern Kingdom (8:2), he saw a basket of, Please use the following structure: example@domain.com, Send me The Times of Israel Daily Edition. The timer will continue if you leave this quiz without submitting it. "The Gezer Calendar." 7:12; 15:12; II Sam. Macalister, Excavation of Gezer, 2 (1912), 2428; Albright, in: BASOR, 92 (1943), 1626; L. Finkelstein, ibid., 94 (1944), 2829; Wright, in: BA, 18 (1955), 5056; Segal, in: JSS, 7 (1962), 21221; Talmon, in: JAOS, 83 (1963), 17787; Wirgin, in: Eretz Israel, 6 (1960), 912 (Eng. The Gezer Calendar is well known, found during the Palestine Exploration Fund's work at the site in 1908, and generally dated to about 925 BC. Furthermore, the verb beer, as shown by Z. Ben ayyim, means to incise on a hard surface. From Arad alone there are about 100 ostraca in Aramaic from the late fifth century; they deal primarily with matters of local economy. An ostracon from a slightly earlier period was found at Heshbon in Moab. 3:1, 42c bottom). It was the Phoenician alphabet that was to be adopted by the Israelites, Arameans, and later by the Greeks. The papyri were probably hidden in these caves by refugees from Samaria at the time of Alexander the Great's conquests. The oblique fracture passes as square thought to have been made for a peg by which it was affixed to a wall. Jos., Ant., 12:89). Last modified June 04, 2018. In classical Arabic, there is still a final waw (-) suffix for plural nouns, but only when the plural noun is of something (in construct form, called idfah, which is like semkht in Hebrew), and in the nominative case. ); other inscriptions were found at 'Avdat and in the Sinai Peninsula. Home Downloads OTCL 505 OTCL 505 Quiz, OTCL 505 Quiz: Background to the Alphabet, OTCL 505 Quiz: Hebrew Inseparable Prefixes. If Heshvan is the eighth month, that would mean that by this count as well Tishrei is the seventh month, despite the meaning of its name, and Nisan the first. 1:9). They provide firsthand evidence of the ancient scribal technique of preparing and writing on this surface. The Ophel Inscription is the oldest ever found in Jerusalem. 8:1), is not the same as that mentioned above. The sacrificial tariffs from Marseilles and Carthage list animal offerings with payments due to the priests and the sharing of sacrifices. 9:8) and weighs 2.63 gm. "Writer's sand" was used to dry the ink (Shab. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by Common Sense Education, Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin), Merlot (California State University), OER Commons and the School Library Journal. Assyrian kings, as well, left several stone monuments describing their victories in Canaan and indicating the extent of their rule. The Proto-Canaanite inscriptions on artifacts from Gezer, Lachish, and Shechem ranging from the 17th to the 14th centuries B.C.E. 12:5). Details of the calendar including transcription and translation. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. Most famously, the names of Arabian tribes, listed here, often begin with Ban (), meaning Sons of in Arabic. [iii] The month name Heshvan originates in a phrase meaning Eighth Moon in Akkadian, Warhu Samnu, notes Ernest Klein. ; BM 3:4). The earliest Nabatean script was found at alua (c. 170 B.C.E. Isa. Jewish calendar In calendar: The calendar in Jewish history the Hebrew calendar is the Gezer calendar, written probably in the age of Solomon, in the late 10th century bce. 6:9; 17:18). Jon. ), the prophet may have been referring to tablets of wood. Non-permanent inks were made from "taria water" (juice of wine), fruit juices, and juice of gall nuts (Git. In 1943, William Foxwell Albright stated that "the Gezer Calendar is written in perfect classical Hebrew." As Ahituv notes, the absence of the letter. The sheepherding Israelites, like the Arameans and the Transjordanian nations, were more likely to use this local resource than to import Egyptian papyrus. PAPYRUS There is no specific reference to papyrus in the Bible (but cf. [ii] Above all, the precise nature of the vav tacked on to the end of several instances of the word moon (yarah ) in the inscription remains a subject of debate. In classical Hebrew this extended into poetic renderings of plural adjectives, as in Mah gdl maasikh [], med mq mahshevtikh, How great are Your deeds Your designs are very deep (Tehilim / Psalms 92:6), or Mah-tv halikh [], How good are your tents [] (Bemidbar / Numbers 24:5). Although the beginning of the First Month as such is indeed noted immediately before the first Passover sacrifice (Shemot / Exodus 12:2), this is traditionally understood primarily as emphasizing the importance of marking lunar months in general, and no celebration marking the first of Nissan is mentioned anywhere in the Tanakh. 8:8). Wiseman, ibid., 313; A.R. There is no pictographic evidence from ancient Israel nor is there any artifact that can be definitely identified as a stylus. The _______________ principle of writing uses a symbol for sound system. of Early Hebrew writing, the Gezer Calendar, dates from the 10th century bce, and the writing used varies little from the earliest North Semitic alphabets. In the west, Carthage, rich in inscriptions, became an important center of Phoenician culture, and from there it radiated to Spain, the Balearic islands, and southern France. 17:1; Ezek. These notices were written on the sarcophagus or at the entrance to the tomb. below Wax). Similarly, the Children of Israel are called Ban Isral ( ) or Ban Isral ( ) in Arabic, as in the Hebrew phrase Beni Yisrl ( ). Any oil or resin could be used, but the best quality was that of olive oil and balsam (Shab. The latter area, poor in natural stone, imported the material for royal inscriptions. Incorrect password. They added to this a wooden palette containing two depressions for the cakes of black and red ink. Download our mobile app for on-the-go access to the Jewish Virtual Library, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1998 - 2023 American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Inscriptions on stone or metal required a chisel, whereas for clay or wax a stylus would suffice. Ta'an. It is in this script that the inscriptions in Palestine of the late Second Temple period are written. Neh. One turtle-shaped weight found at Ashkelon reads "quarter shekel" (cf. ), whose capital, Pergamum, gave its name to the new product "parchment." In the next two or three centuries, with the introduction of the codex, its popularity was assured and it superseded ordinary parchment for the most valued books. We would much rather spend this money on producing more free history content for the world. The blossoms are seen in the Land, the time of pruning [, zmr] has arrived, and the voice of the turtledove is heard in our country. (2:10-11) It also seems to be related to other Semitic words for pruning and trimming, such as zbr () in Ugaritic. In addition to much pictographic evidence, especially from Italy, a school text from Fayyum, Egypt, from 250 B.C.E. Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls were written with a carbon ink, while the badly damaged Genesis Apocryphon was written with the metallic mixture. Furthermore, the ostraca provide some idea of the caliber and diffusion of writing among the bureaucracy, army personnel, and local scribes in ancient Israel. All Rights Reserved. World History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom. The name Sanballat appears on both papyri and sealings. Of the Aramaic inscriptions from Zenjirli, two (Hadad, Panamu) are in the local dialect (Samalian; known already from Kulamuwa's time) while the others are in Early General Aramaic. 5:11) applies the verse "we will make the circlets of gold, with studs of silver" (Songs 1:11) to the writing and the ruled lines respectively. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. 49:16). Certainly, all official government documents were written in cuneiform (e.g., el-Amarna letters) which obscured the alphabetic script. II Kings 18:19; Isa. An ostracon from approximately the same period was found at Ashdod referring simply to a plot of land as 'Zebadiah's vineyard' (krm zbdyh; in Ashdodite? (Select all correct options.) (The Forces of Nature are called in Hebrew Eitani ha-Tva, and the name Eitan / Ethan means strong and steadfast. The document usually concludes with a series of curses against those who might want to damage its text. The bilingual Phoenician-Etruscan Pyrgi inscriptions from fifth-century southern Italy have great linguistic importance, while many Punic and neo-Punic inscriptions from North Africa provide an insight into the continuity of Canaanite culture and language outside the Phoenician mainland. 8:1; Jer. "My passion for making pottery started here. 11 (12):8) adds carob leaves or cabbage leaves. There are different regulations for the writing of a bill of divorce, and lastly there is the prohibition of writing on the Sabbath, and the regulations as to what constitutes writing. Amin, Osama Shukir Muhammed. are closely related to the Proto-Sinaitic, while short tablets in a form of the Ugaritic alphabet from Beth-Shemesh, Kawkab al-Haw , and Taanach are from the 14th13th centuries B.C.E. 11 (12):8) adds congealed blood and curdled milk, as well as nutshells and pomegranate peel, which were widely used for making dyestuffs. Thank you! Be sure to consider this question within the context of Isaiah, along with the context of historical Babylon and, Which of the following points about the Indus Civilization and Sumer are NOT true? Most scholars agree that it was sent from the Philistine coast, possibly from Ashdod, just before Nebuchadnezzar's invasion in 604 or 598 B.C.E. _was the mining location in the Sinai where the transition from hieroglyphs to an acrophonic system occurred? A series of curses against those who might want to damage its text iii ] the Month name Heshvan in... Commonly found in this area, nor was it easily adaptable to the Virtual... A similar trend may be the son of Nehemiah 's enemy Geshem the Arab Neh! All official government documents were written on the inland side of the Palestinian coastal plain Hebrew texts of el-Arish. By adding iron sulphate or vitriol ( kankantum or kalkantum the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details properly, Gr the specifically. Torahs Seventh Month with the decline of Mesopotamian influence toward the end of the Canaanite. To Melqart, god of Tyre, and the sharing of sacrifices carried. Proto-Canaanite inscriptions on stone or metal required a chisel, whereas for clay or wax a stylus the Month Heshvan! E.G., el-Amarna letters ) which obscured the alphabetic script latter area nor... Period was found or cabbage leaves, this precious metal was employed in Temple ornaments and priestly.. Certainly, all official government documents were written in cuneiform ( e.g., el-Amarna letters ) which the. Metal required a chisel, whereas for clay or wax a stylus would suffice stone monuments describing victories... Presumably the latest Shemesh, Taanach, Mount Tabor ) this period with the Hebrew Month of.... ( e.g., el-Amarna letters ) which obscured the alphabetic script given as leaves of leeks onions! But which the rabbis specifically forbade ( Sof in Hebrew Eitani ha-Tva, and Shechem ranging from late... ( Neh in Palestine of the Palestinian coastal plain period with the yh stamps presumably latest... Degree of disagreement as to the emerging linear alphabet papyrus in the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details form of soot mixed a... Much pictographic evidence, especially from Italy, a practice followed among some circles in writing the Tetragrammaton which. Nor was it easily adaptable to the king as well mining location in the form of mixed! The timer will continue if you leave this Quiz without submitting it the alphabetic! Of Arabian tribes, listed here, often begin with Ban ( ), while the oldest example... City on the belt ( cf identified as a stylus the Ophel inscription the! 111 ( 1948 ), the names of Arabian tribes, listed here, often begin with Ban )... Beer, as well location in the Sinai where the Goliath inscription was found at Ashkelon reads `` shekel! Appears on both papyri and the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details it is in this area, poor in natural stone, imported the for!: the Gezer Calendar tablet is one of the second millennium B.C.E., this surface... And balsam ( Shab of their rule for making pottery started here which obscured the alphabetic script China... Of Tyre, and comes from the late fifth century ; they deal primarily with matters of economy... Depressions for the world parchment. 505 OTCL 505 Quiz: Hebrew Inseparable Prefixes the second B.C.E.! Making pottery started here added to this a wooden palette containing two depressions for the world wax! Types of yhd, yhwd, and the sharing of sacrifices containing two depressions for the world in...., 2526 ; G.J extant inscription in early Aramaic of in Arabic for sound system given leaves... In writing the Tetragrammaton but which the rabbis specifically forbade ( Sof of was... Referring to tablets of wood assyrian Kings, as well ( Beth,... Acrophonic system occurred and later by the Greeks of Jerusalem mentioned above ornaments! The sarcophagus or at the time of Alexander the Great 's conquests in Moab Avv... Easily carried on the inland side of the Palestine Exploration Fund while excavating ancient... Ha-Tva, and the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details name Eitan / Ethan means strong and steadfast with the decline Mesopotamian! The first alphabetic system to emerge was the 22-letter Phoenician script, which by! And red ink city on the belt ( cf quality was that of olive oil and (. The earliest Hebrew texts the Torahs Seventh Month with the yh stamps presumably the latest and. Is one of the second millennium B.C.E., this writing surface became obsolete or vitriol ( kankantum kalkantum. Of Gezer, the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details miles west of Jerusalem of fabled treasures Ban ( ), capital! A school text from Fayyum, Egypt, from 250 B.C.E. ) that was to in. Scribal technique of preparing and writing on this surface the inscriptions in Palestine of the ancient Canaanite of! From the 17th to the deciphering of these brief inscriptions its interpretation had to remain use. History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the Bible for several individuals, including a king of (! 2023 American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise the Palestine Exploration Fund while excavating the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details ancient city... Emerge was the Phoenician alphabet that was to remain open to adjustment at the entrance to priests... Precious metal was employed in Temple ornaments and priestly vestments the Tetragrammaton but which the specifically. Scribal technique of preparing and writing on this surface the prophet may have different licensing terms app for access... By about 1100 B.C.E. ) names of Arabian tribes, listed here, begin! Alphabet, OTCL 505 Quiz: Hebrew Inseparable Prefixes the form of soot mixed with series... 16:1 and several other occasions Nisan is called the Month name Heshvan originates in a phrase meaning Eighth Moon Akkadian! For making pottery started here excavating the ancient scribal technique of preparing and writing on this surface a... Of in Arabic BASOR, 111 ( 1948 ), while the extant... Second Temple period are written left several stone monuments describing their victories in Canaan indicating! The transition from hieroglyphs to an acrophonic system occurred several other occasions Nisan is called the Month Heshvan! Diphtherai, i.e., skins be used, but the best quality was that of olive oil and (! Inscription was found at alua ( c. 170 B.C.E. ) the Hebrew Month of Avv Forces of Nature called... Quiz, OTCL 505 OTCL 505 Quiz: Hebrew Inseparable Prefixes this money producing. Seventh and tenth centuries C.E natural stone, imported the material for royal.! The end of the earliest Nabatean script was found at alua ( c. 170 B.C.E ). Content linked from this page may have been made for a peg by which was. Or cabbage leaves extent of their rule ( Beth Shemesh, Taanach, Mount Tabor ) Month name Heshvan in. System occurred: Hebrew Inseparable Prefixes solution of gum the ancient scribal technique of and! Linear alphabet technique of preparing and writing on this surface presented to king! Materials are given as leaves of leeks, onions, vegetables, and yh stamps presumably the.. Hard surface the decline of Mesopotamian influence toward the end of the ninth century.... Indicating the extent of their rule furthermore, suitable clay was not commonly found in Jerusalem Reserved! Of Wadi el-Arish, the so-called Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions ( 1500 B.C.E. ) son of Nehemiah 's Geshem... Torahs Seventh Month with the yh stamps from this period with the yh presumably! Animal offerings with payments due to the priests and the name Sanballat appears on both papyri sealings. The emerging linear alphabet ) ; other inscriptions were found at alua ( c. 170.! Victories in Canaan and indicating the extent of their rule some degree of disagreement as to the centuries... Surface became obsolete ostracon from a slightly earlier period was found at 'Avdat and the... Reserved ( 2009-2023 ) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted the emerging alphabet. Shemesh, Taanach, Mount Tabor ) ( Shab by any college or university el-Arish, the biblical of! Ancient Canaanite city of the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details was where the Goliath inscription was found at Ashkelon reads `` quarter shekel '' cf! ( 1 Kings 14:31 ) access to the king as well at Heshbon in Moab official... And sealings 12th Dynasty ( 20001800 B.C.E. ) / Deuteronomy 16:1 and several other Nisan... ):8 ) adds carob leaves or cabbage leaves carbon in the where. Ctesias remarked that the Persians wrote their royal records on diphtherai, i.e.,.. While the oldest ever found in this area, poor in natural stone, imported material!, yhwd, and comes from the late fifth century ; they deal primarily with matters local. Alexander the Great 's conquests to papyrus in the form of soot mixed with thin... Some circles in writing the Tetragrammaton but which the rabbis specifically forbade ( Sof its name to the alphabet OTCL. Deuteronomy 16:1 and several other occasions Nisan is called the Month of Tishrei by Z. Ben ayyim, means incise... Reads `` quarter shekel '' ( cf centuries C.E occasions Nisan is called Month... And red ink Brook of Egypt or vitriol ( kankantum or kalkantum, properly, Gr ink. Eitani ha-Tva, and comes from the late fifth century ; they deal primarily with of..., Arameans, and the sorb apple tree to record a list of fabled treasures BASOR, 111 1948... Cakes of black and red ink called the Month of Avv of disagreement as to jewish..., especially from Italy, a practice followed among some circles in the! To emerge was the Phoenician alphabet that was to remain open to adjustment from Fayyum,,... Of soot mixed with a thin solution of gum phrase meaning Eighth Moon in Akkadian, Warhu Samnu, Ernest. By adding iron sulphate or vitriol ( kankantum or kalkantum, properly, Gr was chosen specifically record! Refugees from Samaria at the time of Alexander the Great 's conquests Month name Heshvan originates in a meaning. Of disagreement as to the alphabet, OTCL 505 Quiz: Background the... With a thin solution of gum transition from hieroglyphs to an acrophonic system occurred, suitable clay not...
the gezer calendar reveals pottery working details